At the time I thought about this, these mainframes were used for things such as making punch cards and creating documents, amongst other things. What attracted me was the opportunity to write letters. Perhaps it was the impetus for writing a book. These things you could also do with any normal computer. A mainframe was just more fun, I thought. More interesting.
Unrealistic
Was all of this realistic? Of course not, it was unrealistic. A mainframe in the attic is a weird idea. Besides, mainframes were quite expensive. It just didn’t make sense. Especially not when you consider that only one terminal was connected to the mainframe. That would be my terminal. Now that wasn’t really what a mainframe was for. You worked with several people in such an environment. Not only that, you just did that in an office environment. It is little surprise that a mainframe never materialised. Also, no terminal or minicomputer could be connected to such a mainframe. Instead of a terminal, a minicomputer could also be connected to a mainframe. Indeed, there was a time when terminals were replaced by those minicomputers. Because they had more capabilities.
The introduction of minicomputers
The first mainframes and minicomputers were introduced before I was born. I learnt about their existence when I saw ads in English editions of National Geographic. The Dutch version of this magazine didn’t exist at that time (in the eighties). One of the brands that advertises in these magazines caught my attention. This was Wang Laboratories, or just abbreviated as Wang.
Minicomputers were different from the other terminals that were attached to mainframes. The other terminals were more like intelligent types of typewriters. Still, these minicomputers were in some way typewriters. Typewriters with a screen. The name “mini” is not quite accurate, since they weren’t that “mini.” Well, nothing wasn’t really “ mini” in those days. Compared to other things, like mainframes, they were. These minicomputers changed the way people worked. In addition, this was before something else started that still benefits us today, regardless of the device you’re using to read this text. That’s the operating system. The development of the minicomputer brought that change. It demanded new operating systems. Operating systems that would benefit the end users. It began with the most basic operating systems and brought us where we are now. These operating systems were developed for computers, laptops and mobile devices.
DEC and IBM
Does it make sense to choose “DEC and IBM” as a title for this paragraph instead of “IBM and DEC”? Isn’t it more logical to choose “IBM and DEC” instead of “DEC and IBM,” as I did? Not when you read the below.
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) was one of the companies that took a leading role in the development of the minicomputer. The company was founded in the late 1950s and was soon competing with another major player at the time, International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). IBM, aka Big Blue, was pretty much the market leader in all areas. This applied not only to hardware but also to software. This company was made famous with its punch card machine, the Tabulator (1920). This machine was gratefully used not only during the Depression in the USA. The nazis also used these devices during the Holocaust for printing punch cards in concentration camps. After the Second World War, IBM made up for that by coming up with new technological developments. It led to the development of novelties such as the Random Access Method of Accounting and Control
RAMAC was a standard that was introduced in 1954 by Reynold Johnson, who worked for IBM. The first model of the hard disk was introduced in 1954 and the 350 model was shipped in 1955. From 1961, improved models succeeded the 350, starting with the 1300 series. There was one disadvantage. Storage capacity was limited. Although the 1400 series had thirteen times more storage capacity than the first model (which had a storage capacity of about 3MB), it still required many hard drives. Therefore a storage rack was developed, as you can see on this page that’s still available on the website of IBM. That page provides information about the 1301 model. On the 1311 page, the photo shows a different scene. The lineup looks different—a space with huge storage capacity and limited workstations. The focus was more on storage than it was on workstations or workspaces. After the introduction, the storage space of the hard disks would eventually increase. The standard of these hard disks would remain the same for years to come. It was just the same for something else Big Blue introduced in the mid-fifties. That was a programming language.
FORTRAN became the facilitator for other languages
In 1957, the programming language FORTRAN was introduced by IBM. This programming language would continue to be developed in its successors FORTRAN 66, FORTRAN 77, Fortran 90, Fortran 95, Fortran 2003 and Fortran 2018. It would become the engineering, science and econometric programming language. Not only that, it would be the impetus for other programming languages such as ALGOL and BASIC. These, in turn, were forerunners for other programming languages. When it comes to BASIC, think of Microsoft’s initiatives with QuickBASIC, Visual Basic and Visual Basic. NET. Of course, it wasn’t that far back in the 1950s.
1964: The first minicomputer
DEC wasn’t exactly doing anything at that time. In 1964 the company developed the first minicomputer, the Personal Data Processor 8 (PDP-8). The purchase price of this mini-computer was $16,000. Its successor, the PDP-11, was an even greater success. Not long after, the company faced competition and not only that. There appeared to be a problem with the PDP-11’s memory. Modifications were needed. These came and a new model followed. That was the introduction of the VAX line.
VMS
DEC introduced its software for the VAX servers on 25 October 1977 (released in 1978). A special operating system. It wasn’t only used for these servers. It was also used for the Alpha platform, the IA-64 platform and the X86-64 platform. As DEC was acquired by Compaq in 1998, the operating system was maintained by Compaq until 2002. In that year HP bought Compaq. This operating system, based on Digital Command Language (DCL), “changed” owner three times. Later it would become an operating system with a graphical interface with X Windows.
Altavista
There used to be a time when there was no domination by Google. That was the time people used alternative search engines. One of those search engines was Altavista. For those who lived to see the working version of this website, there is some sense of sentiment, when it comes to this website, even for me. This was the number one search engine. The domain still exists, even if it’s being forwarded to Yahoo! Remember, Altavista didn’t last long as part of DEC’s online adventure. The website was launched in 1995 and 1996 the website teamed up with Yahoo! Originally, the website was available when accessing the domain name of DEC, meaning: altavista.digital.com. Gradually, Yahoo! took things over and after Compaq’s acquisition of DEC in 1999, Altavista was sold to Yahoo! Things started going downhill when Compaq decided to embed Altavista as a default search engine on their website. In 2004 Yahoo! regained control of Altavista, but too little, too late. Google was no longer something to ignore. The website remained active until 2013.
Wang Laboratories
DEC was not the only company worth mentioning. Not at all when you consider that I came across ads from another company in the editions of National Geographic. DEC wasn’t the only company that came up with innovations that changed things. There was another American company that did the same. This company was there even before other big IT companies to advertise during a major US sporting event. That company was Wang Laboratories. A company set up in the 1950s that initially marketed a different product.
Linasec: typesetting system
Perhaps the name Wang Laboratories isn’t the name you’ll think about when it concerns computers or a company that produces and sells them. Nor with a company that sells calculators. The use of the word laboratories suggests a connection with the chemical industry. With Wang Laboratories, that was different. After being founded in 1951 by An Wang (7 February 1920 – 24 March 1990), the company started manufacturing typesetting systems (machines). To be more specific: linotype typesetting machines. These were invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler (11 May 1854 – 28 October 1899) from Germany. These machines made it possible to place or set lead typesetting letters by machine. A breakthrough, as this made it possible to publish newspapers with more than eight pages, for example. Of German origin, Mergenthaler obtained US citizenship in 1878 and died in 1899 in Baltimore (tuberculosis).
The Linasec, Wang’s version of the linotype system, was made on behalf of Compugraphic in 1964. Compugraphic got the rights of this Linasec which was very clever and Wang got nothing. Eventually, Compugraphic decided to produce the typesetting systems itself. Incidentally, this company was later acquired by Agfa-Gevaert. Later, parts of this company would be sold to Hewlett-Packard (HP), among others, after Bayer divested Agfa-Gevaert in 1999. Together these were very smart moves made by Compugraphic and it left Wang with nothing. It forced Wang to come up with a new business plan. The Wang LOCI-2 was introduced and this was a “desktop calculator.” I emphatically use inverted commas here, because otherwise, you might think this is a small model. This calculator differs from the calculators we nowadays use. Mostly because these models were larger and the newer models were capable of printing. Wang announced it would market the calculator in 1964, but it would take until 1965 before it was available. When it comes to desktop calculators, one company is named more than once in examples. That is CASIO. This company was indeed a large supplier of these calculators. However, the company wasn’t the first company to introduce these types of calculators. Olivetti is said to be the first company to market calculators. That was with the Programma 101. When comparing the Wang LOCI-2 with the Programma 101, the models differ. There is no printing function in Wang’s model, according to the information on this page. Still, Olivetti’s model looks like a calculator, as you can see on this page. When it comes to functionality, though, both devices did the same.
A calculator calculates something. What extra functionalities are added to it then determines what extra addition the calculator gets. In this case, we are talking about a desktop calculator. There was something else that was important. That was more important than the name desktop calculator and whether or not there was an option to print. The name “programmable calculator” in this case. In other words, the option to make the calculator do something based on programmed things. Based on what the end user entered, in advance, certain things could be calculated. So between 1965 and 1971, not only did companies like CASIO and Olivetti hit the ground running as manufacturers of this kind of device, Wang did the same thing. Only from January 1965 onwards. According to The OId Calculator Museum, the Wang LOCI-2 is worth mentioning in the list of calculators together with Program 101. What logic explains why this device is mainly mentioned as an “earlier device” despite its release date you can read it on the website of the same museum. The device was being developed in 1962 and a rather pushy marketing campaign by Olivetti followed.
Wang as a supplier of word processors
In 1971, the company decided to phase out the production of this type of calculator. This was mainly due to the price of raw materials. It also put its focus on a completely different type of product. That was word processors. Do not confuse this type of product with software programs like Microsoft Word, Libre Office or OpenOffice. These were devices that made it possible to compose texts—for example, letters or other documents.
The Magnetic Tape/Selectric Typewriter, MT/ST, became the important magnetic tape typewriter, introduced by IBM in 1964. Support for typewriters would take place until the 1980s. That was well after the method of storage had already become obsolete. This consisted of storage on magnetic tape. By the time support stopped in 1983, the method of storage by now was much more often stored on floppy disks.
In response to IBM’s products, numerous others came up with theirs. Toshiba launched the JW-10 in 1979. That was in the same year as OKI launched the WORD EDITOR-200. NEC (in full NEC Corporation or Nippon Electric Corporation) introduced the world to the NWP-20 in 1980. That was also the year when the Fujitsu OASYS (by Fujitsu) was presented. These were all Japanese answers to the IBM MT/ST, known in Japan as “wapuro” or “Wa-pro.”
Electric Pencel and WordStar
The Japanese word processors were smaller, meaning they were transportable. It didn’t require a special desk or a workplace to use them. The advent of these word processors changed something else. There was no more supply, so gradually there was a drop in prices. Software developers realized this market was interesting enough to invest in. It was only in the late 1970s that the first serious word-processing software appeared on the market with the introduction of Electric Pencil (1976). This wasn’t the software that would rise to fame. WordStar would become very popular after its release in 1978.
WordStar was written for the CPM/80 operating system and a quick adaptation would follow later so that the program could also be run under PC DOS and MS-DOS. WordStar would be provided with new versions until 1999 and support for use under Windows 95 and Windows 98 would even follow. WordStar would eventually become so popular, that it would become a trap for its creators. Therefore making it impossible to determine whether the end user had bought a version or not.
WordStar wasn’t the only software written for tasks such as these. IBM launched DisplayWrite in 1981, but it didn’t gain as much popularity as WordStar.
Wang 1200 and Wang OIS
The Wang 1200 was announced in 1971 as a response to the moves of IBM. Almost a year later, the first customers were able to use the 1200 models. This model was based on an earlier version of a calculator designed by Wang (model 500). It used a keyboard that was based on the IBM keyboards and there was a storage tape present. Return key entries made it possible to save entries to the cassette. About twenty pages of text could be stored on this cassette, making it possible to print documents at a future moment. Since there was more than one device attached, the cassette could be used on another device for printing. With this device, people started to think about how to collaborate in offices. Wang also thought about this and this developed into the introduction of Wang Office Information System, Wang OIS. This resembles the modern way how a network performs. People work together based on shared resources. Terminals now became something else, instead of being “dumb” terminals. Terminals with their recourses, like processors, and memory, but central disk storage. For this, a mainframe was used. Wang decided to use a coax cable for communication.
This introduction followed other models, following IBM and DEC. In 1968 model 3300 was released and in 1973 model 2200 was released.
Wang 2200
The model 2200 would eventually become the most popular model. This even made the Soviet Union decide to place an order. A first shipment to Russia could take place, but a second one was no longer possible, due to the outbreak of the war in Afghanistan. Further orders were skipped. This made Russian engineers decide to use the models they received to develop the Iskra 226. It was based on the 2200 model of Wang.
T-BASIC, the programming language that was essentially the basis of the 2200, was important enough for two companies to develop forks of this software. Kerridge Computer decided to make an operating system from it called KCML and Niakwa INC made its operating system from it called Basic-2C, which would later be named NPL.
About 65,000 models of this device were sold worldwide through various resellers. One must not forget, that these models weren’t the same as the computers we use nowadays. They were not even based on the standards that IBM introduced with the introduction of model 5150. This model, introduced on 12 August 1981, was the standard of personal computers. At the time Wang began to distribute these 2200 models, this standard even exist yet. With this standard, the concept of working with devices such as the 2200 model, was more and more abandoned. In a way, it also meant that it marked the end of IBM. Because other manufacturers also began to adopt the standards of IBM, they opposed to new standard set by IBM halfway through the eighties.
Reliability and the Battle with IBM
The marketing strategy was dead serious and perhaps a little unrealistic. IBM was too big at the time to be directly attacked by the much smaller Wang. Yet that is precisely what they did in commercials, for example. Not only was the company mentioned by name, but examples of IBM software were also shown and the company’s logo was on display. Before Apple did this, which incidentally was also a direct competitor, it was Wang who advertised during the Super Bowl finale in 1985. The commercial seemed to be inspired by the series Blue Thunder. The helicopter used did look very much like the helicopter from that series.
As you can see in this ad from 1977, both the logos of Apple and IBM were visible. The 1985 Super Bowl ad is also available on YouTube. As you can see, there’s a big difference between these two ads and the ad from 1980. This ad is more easygoing. The focus was more on seriousness. Working together with people all over the world, made possible with the help of Wang, as you can see here.
Reliability is something you have to earn. It’s all about building status and when the Wang Professional Image Computer PIC) was announced by Computerworld on 10 October 1983 in an article, things couldn’t go wrong, right? Well, as it turned out it did. Not all parts of this PIC were available. It’s all covered in this article from Computable about the rise and fall of Wang. Not being able to supply the parts for the PIC was not the only problem that dented Wang’s reliability.
Wang's downfall
For too long, Wang continued to rely on the 2200 models. At a time when other companies were offering PCs, the company continued to rely on an outdated solution. Why? Because it had signed long-term support contracts and because some customers still asked for it. Those were just not the customers who brought in enough revenue. Not when you compare it to other businesses. Other companies marketed systems that were also capable of the same ways of texting, only with more options. Wang eventually did decide to produce its personal computers, only it was at a rather late stage (the late 1980s). Those personal computers became the APC models and the first version did not even meet the IBM standard for personal computers. Only the second model met this standard. Only this model had a problem with the capacitor for the power button. As a result, that button had to be pressed for 30 seconds, after which the computer restarted. Only then was the PC usable. Unacceptable, of course, for end users. If so, this is the PC350-16 model; the succeeding model, the PC350-40, did not have this problem. Even after bankruptcy in 1992, a new PC was launched. These were Alliance series PCs. The last model in that series appeared in 1994. The most notable choice from that series: replacing the standard CMOS battery with four AA batteries. This deviated from the IBM standard.
This was perhaps not the most striking choice in the final years before it all ended for Wang. Let’s begin with the change at the top of the company. A Wang decided to promote his son, Frank Wang, to CEO of the company in 1986. Fred Wang had almost no experience and eventually, he was replaced by Richard W. Miller by order of An Wang. Fred Wang did remain in function as a member of the board of Wang, however. An Wang passed away on 24 March 1990, so he did not live to see what happened to the company. The decision to partner with IBM was one that An Wang probably would not have made any time soon. That was a decision that was made though, as it paved the way for investment in the ailing company by Big Blue. From then on, Wang sold not only IBM PCs but also servers. Then it was about IBM’s RS/6000 line.
IBM’s RISC System/6000 line was introduced by this company in February 1990. This made it a successor to another system, the RISC Technology Personal Computer or RT PC. This was the line introduced in 1986 and was regarded as something that lacked power and was too expensive. It wasn’t just Wang who waited too long. IBM did the same. Moreover, this line seemed like a continuation of the previous line of personal computers, as introduced with the model 5150 on 12 August 1981. Well, that’s what many people believed. However, this RS/6000 was a new line of models. It also meant something else. This was the introduction of the Performance Optimisation With Enhanced RISC. Abbreviated to POWER. It started with the RS/6000 and eventually led to the AS/400 and other major developments. The line is still being developed today through POWER10, which came to market in September 2021. These aren’t desktop computers. IBM itself doesn’t produce them anymore. The last desktop model was the ThinkCentre produced in 2005. In that year, the product line was transferred to Lenovo.
From Wang Laboratories to Wang Global
For Wang, it just did not deliver the solution it was hoping for, as sales continued to fall. On 18 August 1992, they filed for special status (Chapter 11). Bankruptcy was declared on 20 September. However, this didn’t mean it was over. It leads to a restart of the company under the name Wang Global. The headquarters in Lowell Massachusetts was sold and a Joe Tucci took over as CEO. Besides the Alliance models, the focus was primarily on network services. Even after this bankruptcy, an acquisition was made. It involved Olivetti Systems & Services (OLSY). This later proved to be a millstone for Wang Global and for the company that would eventually acquire Wang Global in turn.
Getronics North America
In 1999, the Dutch IT company Getronics announced the acquisition of Wang Global. Based on a press release of 2008, the so-called Legacy Getronics Wang VS Systems were still in use in that year. The migration of these systems began in 1999, the year Wang Global changed its name to Getronics North America. At the time the press bulletin was released, about seventy customers were still using these legacy systems and Getronics announced that support would end. From 1999 to 2008 more than fifty customers were migrated to another platform (VSGX). The bulletin is still available when you access the Internet Archive. A year before this press release was released, Getronics was considering acquiring another North American company. It concerned the takeover of CompuCom. That takeover ultimately did not go through, because Getronics itself had run into problems. Including through the purchase of Wang Global. It was the Dutch KPN that took over Getronics in 2008. The North American branch was eventually sold to the company that Getronics previously wanted to acquire, CompuCom. In 2011, the name Getronics was dropped for all Dutch activities, in 2012 CompuCom took over the activities in North America.
Getronics took it one step too far when taking over Wang Global. It was similar to what Wang Global did with the acquisition of OLSY.
So, what went wrong with Wang?
It wasn’t one thing that led to Wang’s bankruptcy. It was not the idea that an inexperienced CEO had caused this bankruptcy. The downward spiral had already started earlier. Holding on to something outdated for too long. Wang did exactly what their great rival did. IBM also held on to what was considered that success formula for just a little too long. At a time when others were moving on to other things, IBM stuck to the idea that they could control everything and knew how to do it. A trust. Wang didn’t do anything else. They wanted to radiate a certain confidence. Perhaps it was realized too late that the market demanded something different. PCs instead of word processors like the 2200. Once Wang’s PCs arrived, a fiasco followed with a PC that did not meet the standard and then a model with a huge bug. These are things that people will remember.
The decision to then allow a competitor to invest may have seemed like a convenient solution, but it was an emergency measure. A last straw. The decision after the bankruptcy to offer network services was logical. What didn’t make sense was continuing to produce PCs and certainly not taking over OLSY. A millstone for the company. Olivetti did not want to get rid of this division without reason.
Similarities and differences between Wang and IBM
When taking a look at both companies, there are some similarities. Consider, for example, the position of IBM compared to other competitors (Wang not included). Let’s not forget that in the end, IBM had to make a drastic decision. not only did the company withdraw from the PC market. The company also withdrew completely from the laptop market. That line was later also taken over by Lenovo. The difference with Wang was the adaptation of new standards that IBM subsequently introduced itself. These were flatly rejected by the industry, i.e. by the competition. We are talking about the PS/2 models, which were announced in April 1987 and came onto the market in August (model 25).
The architecture of the models differed from that of the previous models. In the meantime, several manufacturers had already switched to the standard that IBM introduced and had adjusted their production lines. Adjusting those production lines again was not accepted. This left IBM alone and essentially went from a major player in the market to a marginal player in the desktop PC market. By 1992 it was clear that IBM had completely lost the battle. Three years later, the company would stop producing desktop PCs altogether, as you can read here.
What IBM did is similar to what Wang did. Judging that everything was fine and having confidence that nothing needed to change. When the change was subsequently chosen, it turned out not to be the right choice. For a long time, Wang decided to rely on an office automation system that was nothing like what we know today. They decided to adapt but it was too late a moment. Furthermore, the first model of the PC was not comparable to the IBM standard. Technical problems with another model didn’t make things much better either.
There's a time for everything
Well, there was a time that minicomputers were the best thing. There’s a time for everything. Well, almost everything, when you take the story of the PS/2 into consideration. Minicomputers were once the best option to go for. Until the moment successors were introduced. That’s evolution. In the end it was also about decisions and one of them was about networking. Was there a need for every user to be attached to a network? Especially when the workstations were no longer in need to use central storage facilities? Or even printing facilities? Pricing also played an important role here. There were cheaper solutions available. These solutions offered more options. That was further down the line. When Wang introduced their solutions, these nifty “new” options weren’t available yet. So, there was definitely a gap to be filled and Wang did so. The question remains, however, how far are you willing to go as a CEO? Wang made the choice to go after Big Blue. Was that the wisest decision? With aggressive marketing strategies and a market share that was nothing compared to IBM in the end? If you look at it that way, well.. no. On the other hand, it’s worth to try, right? No guts, no glory! Well, this isn’t a management training. That’s not the aim of all of this.
My bedroom
Remember where it all began for me? My dream. A mainframe in my bedroom. Not realistic at all. Well, one can dream. Even if it’s not realistic. Years and years later, it lead to something. The article that you’ve just read. So, in the end, in a way, it lead to … well, something.
About the Wang word processor? I never seen one in real life. So, I’ve never written a letter with a Wang word processor. Well, who knows, maybe someday I’ll write a book with a Wang word processor, who knows! One can dream, right?
